First and Last Pharaoh: Who Were They?

The first pharaoh is usually said to be Narmer (c. 3000 BC); tradition knows a king Menes, who is identified with Narmer or Aha. Who the last was depends on the question: Nectanebo II was the last native pharaoh, Cleopatra VII the last Ptolemaic ruler (30 BC), and Roman emperors were depicted as pharaohs for centuries more.

Who was the first pharaoh?

There is no single answer. Narmer is named most often: the Narmer Palette from Hierakonpolis shows him wearing the crown of Upper Egypt and the crown of Lower Egypt, and his tomb is at Abydos. Later king lists, however, begin with a king called Menes. Whether Menes is the same as Narmer or as his successor Aha is disputed.

Before Narmer the list shows early kings regarded as petty kings in Upper and Lower Egypt (“Dynasty 0”), among them Scorpion I and Scorpion II. Whether Scorpion II is the same as Narmer or ruled before him is open. More on the page Predynastic Period & Dynasty 0.

The word “pharaoh” itself came up much later (see What is a Pharaoh?). Speaking of the “first pharaoh” means the first king of the united Egypt.

Who was the last pharaoh?

The end of the pharaonic era is not a single date. Depending on what you mean by “pharaoh” there are four answers:

The last native pharaoh: Nectanebo II

Nectanebo II of the 30th Dynasty ruled 359–341 BC according to the list. His reign ended with the Persian reconquest of Egypt in the early 340s BC; he fled, and his further fate is unknown. After that Persians ruled again, and from 332 BC Alexander the Great and his successors.

The last Ptolemaic ruler: Cleopatra VII

Cleopatra VII ruled 51–30 BC. After her defeat by Octavian, the later Augustus, she died in 30 BC, probably by suicide. Her son Ptolemy XV Caesarion had been co-regent since 44 BC and was killed on Octavian’s orders the same year. Egypt became a Roman province. Cleopatra VII is therefore often called the “last pharaoh”.

Roman emperors as pharaohs

After 30 BC Egyptian temples still showed the Roman emperor as pharaoh, with crowns, royal titles and a name ring in hieroglyphs. The list shows emperors from Augustus to Maximinus Daza (305–313 AD); details are on the page Roman Emperors as Pharaohs.

The last hieroglyphic inscription

The latest datable inscription in Egyptian hieroglyphs dates from 24 August AD 394. A priest called Nesmeterakhem carved it at Philae (Graffito of Esmet-Akhom). It names no king but marks the end of hieroglyphic writing.

Short answer

First pharaoh: usually Narmer (c. 3000 BC), perhaps also Aha or the traditional Menes. Last native pharaoh: Nectanebo II. Last ruler of the Ptolemaic period: Cleopatra VII (died 30 BC). All rulers in chronological order are in the List of Pharaohs; the periods are on the Timeline & Dynasties.

Books on this topic

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Ancient Egypt: The Definitive Visual HistoryDKA large illustrated volume with photographs of temples, tombs and finds.AdOn Amazon
The Oxford History of Ancient EgyptIan Shaw (ed.)The standard one-volume history, written by leading Egyptologists.AdOn Amazon

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Frequently asked questions

Who was the first pharaoh of Egypt?

Narmer is named most often (c. 3000 BC). Later king lists begin with Menes, whom some identify with Narmer and others with his successor Aha. Before them early petty kings ruled (“Dynasty 0”).

Who was the last pharaoh?

That depends on the count: Nectanebo II was the last native pharaoh, Cleopatra VII the last ruler of the Ptolemies (30 BC). Roman emperors were still depicted as pharaohs for a long time afterwards.

Who was the last native pharaoh?

Nectanebo II of the 30th Dynasty. He fled from the Persians; his further fate is unknown.

Was Cleopatra the last pharaoh?

She was the last ruler of the Ptolemies and died in 30 BC; Egypt then became a Roman province. In that sense she is regarded as the last pharaoh. Roman emperors, however, continued to be depicted as pharaohs.

Who was Menes?

Menes is the king with whom later king lists begin the line of pharaohs. He cannot be assigned to one ruler with certainty: some equate him with Narmer, others with Aha.

When did the pharaonic era end?

The native kings ended in the early 340s BC with the Persian reconquest, the Ptolemies in 30 BC with the death of Cleopatra VII. Emperors depicted as pharaohs run into the 3rd and 4th centuries AD; the latest datable hieroglyphic inscription is from AD 394.

Sources

Facts checked on 19 October 2026. Dates follow the list on this site and are estimates.

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